Stream Archives - DENSsolutions

DENSsolutions successfully installs both a Stream and Climate system at Cardiff University

by Lama Elboreini | Jun 14, 2023 | Climate, Interview, Stream

From left to right: Oliver Mchugh and Dr. Thomas Slater from Cardiff University, Dr. Lars van der Wal and Alex Rozene from DENSsolutions

We are excited to announce that DENSsolutions has installed both a Stream and Climate system at the renowned Cardiff University in Wales, the United Kingdom. In this article, we interview Dr. Thomas Slater, Lecturer at Cardiff University, to learn more about the Cardiff Catalysis Institute Electron Microscope Facility, the team’s research direction and the pivotal role our Stream and Climate systems will play in advancing their research initiatives.

Can you tell me about the Cardiff Catalysis Institute Electron Microscope Facility?

“The Cardiff Catalysis Institute Electron Microscope Facility (CCI-EMF) is based at Cardiff University, one of Britain’s leading research Universities. The CCI-EMF is a new, world-class electron microscopy facility located in the University’s Translational Research Hub on its Innovation Campus. It houses an array of state-of-the-art imaging and analytical instruments designed around the study of heterogeneous catalysts and nano materials. The mission of the facility is to provide researchers in academia and industry with cutting-edge microscopy equipment, creating a Welsh hub for electron microscopy expertise and skills development.

In October 2022, we installed a 200 kV Thermo Fisher Scientific Cold-FEG Spectra 200. This aberration-corrected scanning transmission electron microscope (AC-STEM) is the first of its type in Wales. It is optimised for the study and analysis of heterogeneous catalysts and nanoparticles and is fitted with the Super-X EDS detector, Panther STEM detection system for HAADF/BF and iDPC imaging, Gatan’s Continuum ER EELS and Quantum Detectors Merlin detector. The facility also hosts a JEM-2100 LaB₆ transmission electron microscope with a high-resolution Gatan digital camera and Oxford X-max EDS detector and a Tescan MAIA-3 field emission gun scanning electron microscope (FEG-SEM), which enables secondary electron (SE), in-beam SE, low-kV backscattered electron (BSE), in-beam BSE and scanning transmission electron microscopy (STEM) imaging capabilities.”

What type of applications are the users at CCI-EMF interested in using the Stream and Climate systems for?

“The Stream In Situ TEM Liquid + Biasing or Heating system will enable us to study liquid-phase reactions and follow the mechanisms of nanoparticle synthesis in solution. Nanoparticle growth and crystallization on the surface of metal oxide supports is of particular interest to us, along with catalyst stability in solution and the mechanisms of deactivation through leaching and particle migration.

The Climate In Situ TEM Gas + Heating system will allow the CCI researchers to conduct operando STEM, TEM and chemical imaging of heterogeneous catalysts under reaction conditions. We aim to develop an improved understanding of structure-activity relationships, oxidation and reduction processes, catalysts synthesis, catalyst stability and deactivation mechanisms. Crucially, we will be able to study changes in the structure and chemistry as a function of temperature, pressure and composition, improving our understanding of catalysed processes at or near real reaction conditions.”

What particular features of the DENSsolutions systems stood out to you?

“For us it was critical to have excellent thermal stability, a uniform heated zone and fast gas mixing at the cell to ensure reproducibility and correlation with our larger scale benchtop micro- reactors. Chemical compatibility with a wide range of reaction gases and catalyst materials was also important as we support a vast number of researchers across multiple research projects with very different experimental requirements.”

Could you tell us a bit more about the funding granted to acquire the systems?

“The system was purchased with European Regional Development Funding (ERDF) through the Welsh European Funding office (WEFO) and part-funded by The Wolfson Foundation. The funding enabled the CCI to establish its own EM facility through the purchase of advanced microscopes and equipment such as the DENSsolutions Stream and Climate systems. This capability enhances and strengthens the already outstanding catalyst research facilities of the CCI and our aim is to use this new capability to support the research needs of the University, our existing partners, local industry as well as develop new research strands.”

In your experience so far, how have you found working with Stream and Climate?

“The installation went very smoothly and was completed in a couple of weeks, including the 3 days of training. The hardware is robust, and the chip assembly relatively intuitive. We are able to have chips prepared, assembled, leak-checked and in the microscope within the space of a couple of hours which leaves the rest of the days free for experiments. The parameter control is made easy through the Impulse software workflow which guides you from start to finish. In fact, we were running experiments ourselves and generating data within a week of installation.”

Dr. Tom Slater
Lecturer | Electron Microscopy of Catalytic Materials, Cardiff University

Dr. Tom Slater received his Ph.D. in Nanoscience from the University of Manchester, where he also did postdoctoral work in the Henry Moseley X-ray Imaging Facility. He then joined the electron Physical Sciences Imaging Centre (ePSIC) as an electron microscopy scientist. He was appointed as a Lecturer in Electron Microscopy of Catalytic Materials at Cardiff University in 2022, where his research focuses on imaging of heterogeneous catalysts.

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Liquid flow control: Unlock untapped research capabilities within in situ LPEM

by Lama Elboreini | Nov 7, 2022 | Electrochemistry, LPTEM, Stream

Via the unique on-chip microfluidic channel of the DENSsolutions Stream system, researchers were able to create a highly controlled chemical environment for visualizing the nanoscale metallic electrodeposition of copper crystals.

Original article by Cheng et al.

Liquid phase transmission electron microscopy (LPTEM) enables the observation of time-resolved dynamics in liquid state at high spatial resolution. The technique has gained exponential popularity over the last decade, and has contributed greatly to a wide range of fields, including materials science, chemistry and life science. With LPEM, researchers can explore the dynamical evolution of key materials and uncover fundamental insights into nucleation and growth. Only in recent years have researchers been able to control the chemical environment within an in situ LPEM experiment, owing to the award-winning innovation that is the DENSsolutions Stream system. In a recent publication, researchers including Dr. Ningyan Cheng from Anhui University utilized the Stream system to visualize the metallic electrodeposition of copper crystals in a highly controlled chemical environment. This was made possible due to the unique on-chip flow channel of Stream, which enables numerous advantages such as the ability to flush away beam-induced species, explore flow-dependent liquid dynamics and easily change electrolyte composition.

On-chip microfluidic channel

The core of the DENSsolutions Stream system is our patented Nano-Cell, which consists of a top and bottom chip, together forming a sealed compartment that enables users to safely perform liquid experiments inside the TEM. The bottom chip contains spacers, an integrated liquid inlet, flow channel and an outlet. Via pressure-based pumps, a liquid sample can be driven from the inlet through the field of view and then through the outlet. This process is demonstrated in the video below. Importantly, users can independently control the pressure at the inlet and outlet of the Nano-Cell, and therefore the absolute pressure in the microfluidic channel. This then enables full control over the liquid flow rate within the cell.

Movie 1: Animation depicting the microfluidic channel of the Stream Nano-Cell

Efficient liquid flow

Before observing any liquid phenomena in the TEM, Dr. Cheng and her fellow collaborators first had to ensure that the flow was efficient and well-controlled. To do this, the researchers first assembled a dry Nano-Cell. The flow was then initiated by turning on the pressure-based pump, while keeping all imaging parameters constant. After 30 seconds, the imaging contrast changed abruptly, implying that the liquid had definitely flowed into the Nano-Cell. This process is shown in the video below. The time taken to completely fill the Nano-Cell ranges anywhere from tens of seconds to just 3 minutes when a flow rate of 8 μl/min is applied.

Movie 2: In situ TEM movie showing the liquid flow into the Nano-Cell in just 30 seconds

Removal of beam-induced species

A key benefit of controlling the liquid flow within an LPEM experiment is the ability to remove beam-induced particles. The researchers first generated particles by increasing the electron flux on purpose through changing the spot size from 5 to 1. The process of removing the beam-induced species in this experiment is detailed in the video below, with the direction of the flow going from top to bottom. As soon as the flow was cut off at 6.4s, the particles started to form and grow on the membrane. The flow was then switched on again at 11.7 seconds, which is when the particles that were stuck to the membrane started to peel off and move from the top to the bottom area in the field of view. It took just 2 minutes to fully flush away the particles, which is a reproducible process. The direction of the particles’ movement is the same as the direction of the flow (top to bottom), confirming the effectiveness and power of the liquid flow control.

Movie 3: Removal of beam-induced species via liquid flow control

Capturing flow-dependent liquid dynamics

The next step for the researchers was to explore the effect of the flow rate on the electrochemical copper crystallization and dissolution processes in real time. They first observed the effect of using a higher flow rate of 1.4 μl/min on the Cu deposition and dissolution processes, which showed to be reversible. The protocol included the initial electrode cleaning, deposition (−0.9 V, 10 s), dissolution (+0.4 V, 15 s) and repeating the process for 4 cycles. As demonstrated in the video below, the researchers found that uniform copper deposition can be obtained at a higher liquid flow rate (~1.4 μl/min), whereas at a lower liquid flow rate (0.1 μl/min), the growth of copper dendrites was observed.

Movie 4: Copper electrodeposition at a flow rate of 1.4 μl/min (left) and 0.1 μl/min (right)

Changing electrolyte composition

Besides exploring the effects of altering the flow rate, a major point of interest in this study was observing the effect of adding foreign ions, such as phosphates, on the electrodeposition. Such additives can affect the electrochemically deposited crystals by, for example, changing the nuclei structures. The researchers first studied the electrodeposition of copper from a pure CuSO₄ aqueous solution. In this case, no obvious dendritic morphology was observed and instead only granules were formed (see below Figure 1, Left).

After the experiment, the electrolyte in the sample source was replaced by a mixture of CuSO₄ and KH₂PO₄ solution. The liquid was kept flowing with a flow rate of 3 μl/min for 15 min, which enabled the researchers to directly study the electrolyte effect on the depositions in the same liquid cell by excluding all the uncertainties during different cell assembly. Contrastingly in this case, copper dendrites were observed to grow and the addition of H₂PO₄− ions in the electrolyte led to the formation of Cu-phosphate complexes (see Figure 1, Right). These results further confirm the importance of being able to modulate the electrolyte composition, and demonstrate the effectiveness of the environment control that Stream enables.

Figure 1: The effect of phosphate addition on Cu electrodeposition

Exploiting electrode design to alter the chemical environment

When studying Cu electrodeposition in the previous experiment, the researchers saw that dendrite formation can be further promoted by the in situ addition of foreign ions, such as phosphates. In order to confirm the generality of this technique, they also took a look at Zn electrodeposition in an aqueous solution of ZnSO₄. The figure below shows the total growth of the zinc layer at b) a lower potential of −0.9 V (versus Pt) in the first 10 seconds, and c) a higher potential of −1.1 V (versus Pt) in the next 10 seconds. In d) the total growth of the Zn depositions in the first 20 seconds is shown. The researchers observed in the first 10 seconds (−0.9 V) that the deposition on the inner edge is rougher compared to the outer edge. In the following growth at −1.1 V, dendritic depositions are nucleated and grown on the previous outer edge, while no further growth can be observed in the inner edge. This experiment demonstrates that the special electrode design of Stream enables the exploration of rich liquid dynamics within different chemical environments.

Figure 2: Zinc electrodeposition in b) the first 10 seconds with a potential of −0.9 V and c) in the next 10 seconds with a potential of −1.1 V. d) shows the total Zn growth in the 20 seconds.

Conclusion

Through this study, it is shown that Stream’s distinctive ability to enable liquid flow control opens the doors for researchers to truly alter the chemical environment within the liquid cell. By controlling the liquid flow, a user can flush away beam-induced species, explore flow-dependent liquid dynamics and easily change electrolyte composition. Moreover, the unique design of the electrodes in the Stream system allows researchers to explore complex liquid dynamics within different chemical environments within the same liquid cell. Importantly, the direct observations made by Cheng et al. not only provide new insights into understanding the nucleation and growth, but also give guidelines for the design and synthesis of desired nanostructures for specific applications, such as high performance electrocatalysis for energy conversion and electrodes for secondary batteries.

Image of Dr. Ningyan Cheng from Max-Planck-Institut für Eisenforschung GmbH

“The DENSsolutions Stream System not only provides a useful means to study a wide range of dynamics in solution, but also enables systematic studies of the effect of the chemical environment on the corresponding reactions through precise control of the flow rate, liquid composition and other significant parameters.”

Prof. Dr. Ningyan Cheng Associate Professor | Anhui University

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Climate helps uncover phase coexistence and structural dynamics of redox metal catalysts

Using our Climate system, scientists are able to interrelate the atomic-scale structural dynamics of redox metal catalysts to their activity.

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Introducing the Stream Liquid Supply System: An integrated solution offering unmatched flexibility

by Lama Elboreini | Apr 29, 2022 | Interview, Stream

An interview with DENSsolutions Mechanical Engineer Alejandro Rozene about our latest addition to the Stream product line: the Liquid Supply System (LSS).

DENSsolutions introduces its latest solution: the Stream Liquid Supply System (LSS): an integrated solution designed to offer you ease-of-use, flexibility and reproducibility in your in situ liquid experiments. In this article, we interview our Mechanical Engineer Alejandro Rozene to learn all about the LSS, from what inspired its development, its unique capabilities and the many applications that will benefit from its creation.

What led to the development of the Stream Liquid Supply System?

“Our Liquid Phase Electron Microscopy (LPEM) solutions have been used by researchers around the world in a plethora of research fields, such as protein studies, battery research and molecular self-assembly. With our Stream system, users can fully control the microfluidic environment inside the Nano-Cell, our environmental MEMS sample carrier, while biasing or heating their sample. Considering the wide range of capabilities the system offers and the complexity of LPEM, Stream is quite the advanced system. This is precisely what inspired the next step in the innovation process: the development of an integrated solution designed to offer greater flexibility and ease-of-use. The Liquid Supply System (LSS) is a single scientific instrument that allows microscopists to carry out imaging experiments in fewer steps while introducing new features. The LSS is also designed to be the basic unit of a modular system that can be configured for different research applications.”

What are the main benefits of the LSS for users?

“The introduction of the LSS to the Stream product line brings forth numerous advantages for your in situ liquid experiments, including greater flexibility, reliability and reproducibility. These benefits are detailed below:

1) Ease of use: Thanks to the clever architecture of the LSS, particularly the moveable base, you can easily relocate, store and set it up in various locations. It is also possible to control the microfluidic environment of the Nano-Cell and to apply different stimuli using a single interface in Impulse, our in situ experiment control and automation software. All of the sensor data is collected centrally. The LSS therefore simplifies the LPEM workflow and allows you to shift the focus from the hardware to the imaging experiment. This will potentially open the door to more elaborate experimental workflows.

2) High resolution imaging and meaningful analytical analysis: It is widely known that LPEM suffers from limited resolution caused by the thickness of the liquid layer inside the sample chamber. Even a 500 nm liquid layer can limit imaging resolution. With the LSS, the capability of controllable and inert gas purging is introduced. This means that you can easily displace the liquid in the Nano-Cell and effortlessly cycle between dry and liquid environments. This can be done with air or with an inert gas for air-sensitive samples. Via purging, you can easily get rid of excess liquid in the sample, thereby allowing you to achieve high resolution imaging, image in electron diffraction mode and perform spectroscopy techniques: EDS and EELS.

3) Reliable and reproducible results: The components of the LSS, such as the inlet and outlet pressure-based pumps as well as the liquid flow meter, introduce an unprecedented level of control during your liquid phase microscopy experiments. The LSS offers the unique ability to actively measure the liquid flow, making it possible for you to compare results from different experiments. Moreover, this means that you can easily detect potential clogs in the system and act fast, allowing you to spend your TEM time efficiently and effectively. Ultimately, the combination of our LSS and unique Nano-Cell design, having an on-chip inlet and outlet, enables the liquid delivery to be both reliable and reproducible with a success rate of more than 95%.”

Which applications will benefit most from the LSS?

“The LSS is beneficial for any researcher who wants to use LPEM to observe hydrated samples, matter suspended in liquid or liquid itself in a dynamic environment. Some of the many fields that will benefit from the system include:

Life Science: DNA imaging, biomineralization, cell imaging and protein studies
Electrochemistry: studies of aqueous electrolytes and electrocatalysis
Material Science: studies of nanoparticle formation, self-assembly and growth

These are just a few examples of the several fields that can benefit from the Stream system. Furthermore, the door is open to any researcher who may want to exploit the unique capabilities of the LSS for any liquid-based study outside of the TEM.”

What kind of challenges were tackled during development?

“The LSS is a state-of-the-art scientific instrument. As with any other mechatronic development, integrating the sensing, actuating and microfluidic components into a single, robust machine was in itself a challenge. Also, our market is especially demanding since the users of this instrument already work with some of the most advanced equipment out there, which undoubtedly sets the bar very high. However, it was a very enjoyable experience thanks to the incredible teamwork and collaboration of our MEMS Project Manager, Tijn van Omme, and our Software Developer, Emil Svensson, as well as our manufacturing partners.”

What is the compatibility of the LSS?

“The LSS is an integral part of our Stream product line. It is therefore fully compatible with the modular Stream sample holder, the Stream liquid biasing and liquid heating Nano-Cells, as well as with Impulse. With regards to the microscopes, compatibility is given by the holder type. We currently offer compatibility with JEOL and Thermo Fisher Scientific microscopes.”

Has the LSS already been installed?

“Yes, the Liquid Supply System has been installed at the University of Alberta Nanofabrication and Characterization Facility (nanoFAB) in Canada. The nanoFAB is a national, open-access training, service, and collaboration centre, focused on academic and industrial applications in micro- and nanoscale fabrication and characterization. The installation was carried out by our MEMS Project Manager, Tijn van Omme, with the support of our close distributor Colt Murray from Nanoscience Instruments. It is the first of several installations planned in the upcoming months.”

From left to right: XueHai Tan, Colt Murray, Tijn van Omme and Haoyang Yu

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Unraveling the dynamic behavior of zinc electrodes in aqueous electrolytes using our Stream system

by Lama Elboreini | Feb 28, 2022 | Stream

Scientists are able to observe for the first time using in situ TEM the morphology and phase evolution of zinc anodes during zinc dissolution and deposition in aqueous electrolytes.

Original article by Yongfeng Huang, Qingqing Gu, Zhanglong Guo, Wenbao Liu, Ziwen Chang, Yuefeng Liu, Feiyu Kang, Liubing Dong, Chengjun Xu

Metallic zinc is a widely used electrode material for aqueous rechargeable zinc-ion batteries (ZIBs) due to its high theoretical capacity, low redox potential, natural abundance and low cost. Despite these valuable benefits, zinc electrodes suffer from short cycling stability due to many factors such as the growth of zinc dendrites as well as corrosion. Little is known about the underlying reasons for the failure of zinc anodes on a deeper level. Indeed, the use of in situ transmission electron microscopy can serve as a means to bridge this gap in knowledge, unraveling the morphological evolution of zinc anodes during zinc dissolution and deposition in aqueous electrolytes.

In recent research performed at the DICP-DENS Microscopy Centre by Dr. Yuefeng Liu from the Dalian Institute of Chemical Physics, Yongfeng Huang from Tsinghua University, and many more collaborators, they were able to obtain a deep understanding of the stripping/plating behaviors of zinc in various aqueous electrolytes using the DENSsolutions Stream system. Specifically, the researchers investigated the effects of adding Mn²⁺ and CF₃SO₃⁻ in zinc-salt aqueous electrolytes on the zinc plating/stripping behavior. This work not only sheds light on the mechanism of zinc anodes during zinc dissolution/deposition processes in aqueous electrolytes, but also provides effective strategies to achieve long-term stable rechargeable zinc-ion batteries (ZIBs).

Three aqueous electrolytes

As the high reversibility of zinc anodes is a prerequisite for large- scale applications of ZIBs and ZHSs, many efforts have been dedicated to achieve long-term stable zinc anodes. One effective way to stabilize and acquire dendrite-free zinc anodes is by introducing additives in aqueous electrolytes. In previous studies, it was found that the addition of Mn²⁺ in the form of MnSO₄ to a ZnSO₄ aqueous electrolyte can actually suppress the dissolution of the MnO₂ cathode. Similarly, in comparison to a ZnSO₄ electrolyte, a Zn(CF₃SO₃)₂ electrolyte is far more effective in achieving better electrochemical performance of many ZIB systems.

For these reasons, aside from a pure ZnSO₄ electrolyte, ZnSO₄/MnSO₄ and Zn(CF₃SO₃)₂ are commonly used aqueous electrolytes for ZIBs. Despite this, zinc plating/stripping behaviors in ZnSO₄/MnSO₄ and Zn(CF₃SO₃)₂ and their effects on electrochemical stability of metallic zinc anodes are unknown. In this study, the researchers combine operando TEM and electrochemical analysis to unravel the zinc stripping/plating behaviors in the three aqueous electrolytes detailed above (ZnSO₄, ZnSO₄/MnSO₄ and Zn(CF₃SO₃)₂). In the following sections, in situ TEM images and videos of the zinc stripping/plating process in the three different electrolytes are shown.

1) Zinc plating/stripping process in a ZnSO₄ electrolyte

The researchers first constructed a micro zinc-ion battery inside the Stream holder, allowing them to monitor the zinc plating/stripping processes using the system’s on-chip flow channel. After assembling the Stream Nano-Cell and leak-testing it, the researchers were then able to flow the electrolytes into the liquid cell, using the pressure-based liquid pump to fully control the rate of the flow.

Next, the researchers set out to observe the zinc stripping/plating behavior in a pure ZnSO₄ aqueous solution. In Figure 1 below, the in situ TEM images detailing the zinc plating and stripping process at different times in 2 M ZnSO₄ are shown. During the zinc plating process exhibited in Figure 1a–d, the thickness of zinc deposited on the platinum substrate increases. Simultaneously, dendrite-like structures form and develop gradually. This confirms the dendrite issue of metallic zinc electrodes in the 2 M ZnSO₄ electrolyte, which leads to a short-circuit occurrence. After this, the zinc stripping process occurs, which is demonstrated in Figure 1d–f. During this process, it is observed that the deposited zinc is unable to fully strip away from the platinum substrate and dissolve into the electrolyte under the same charge and discharge time conditions. As a result, dead zinc is generated (see Figure 1f).

Figure 1: In-situ TEM images of zinc plating/stripping on the surface of Pt working electrode in 2 M ZnSO₄ electrolyte at different times: (a) 0 s, (b) 3 s, (c) 10 s, (d) 28 s, (e) 80 s and (f) 261 s.

Electrolytes of high concentrations are generally not conducive for monitoring zinc stripping/plating behaviors using in situ TEM, as they can block out the liquid inlet hole of the holder. Due to this, along with the valuable insights that further investigating the effect of concentration on dendrite growth can provide, the ZnSO₄ electrolyte was diluted from 2 M to 20 mM. The researchers then observed the zinc stripping/plating process in the 20 mM ZnSO₄ aqueous electrolyte. The in situ TEM images and corresponding movie detailing this process can be seen below in Figure 2 and Video 1, respectively.

The zinc stripping/plating process was controlled using the cyclic voltammetry (CV) technique at 20 mV/s. Figure 2g shows the corresponding CV curve, where the red dots marked as a–f correspond to the states in Figure 2a–f. At 71s (see Figure 2b), the researchers observed that the visible zinc particles in the electrolyte, as well as the dense dispositioned zinc and the zinc dendrites (marked in green) on the surface of the Pt substrate occur at the same. Between 76s–95s (Figure 2c-d), they noticed that more zinc was plating on the platinum surface, with the potential ranging from − 1.41 V to − 1.1 V. Next, the process of zinc dissolution occurs, where the zinc frontier line is observed to shrink back to area II at 114s (Figure 2e) and to the edge of the Pt substrate at 144s (Figure 2f). It is observed that the dendrite is still not completely removed when the potential returns to 0 V. Conclusively, although reducing the concentration can slow down dendrite formation, it does not fully suppress it.

Figure 2: In-situ TEM images of zinc plating/stripping on the surface of Pt working electrode in 20 mM ZnSO₄ electrolyte at different times: (a) 0 s (b) 71 s, (c) 76 s, (d) 95 s, (e) 114 s and (f) 144 s. (g) CV curve of zinc stripping/plating process on the surface of Pt working electrode in 20 mM ZnSO4 electrolyte at a scan rate of 20 mV/s. (h) XRD pattern after zinc plating/stripping at Pt. (i) XPS result after zinc plating/stripping at Pt.

Video 1: Video of zinc plating/striping at the interface of Pt working electrode in 20 mM ZnSO₄ electrolyte.

2) Zinc plating/stripping process in a ZnSO₄/MnSO₄ electrolyte mixture

The next step for the researchers was to observe the zinc stripping/plating process in a ZnSO₄/MnSO₄ electrolyte mixture, as MnSO₄ additives in ZnSO₄ electrolytes can actually optimize the electro-chemical stability of metallic zinc electrodes. They first added 5 mM MnSO₄ to the 20 mM ZnSO₄ aqueous electrolyte. The in situ TEM images and corresponding movie detailing the resulting zinc plating/stripping process can be seen below in Figure 3 and Video 2, respectively.

Figure 3a–d depicts the zinc plating process, in which Mn spherical particles appear and gradually increase in size. At 124s (see Figure 3e), the zinc stripping process starts to occur, and these spherical particles in the electrolyte begin to disintegrate and finally disappear at 259s (see Figure 3i). Aside from the spherical particles in the electrolyte, a visible amount of deposited zinc (marked in green in Figure 3e) appears on the Pt working electrode. Notably, the sphere species, both in the electrolyte and also on the surface of the Pt substrate, disintegrate. This results in the further precipitation of zinc and leads to the increased thickness of zinc. Interestingly, zinc dendrites were not observed to form in the ZnSO₄/MnSO₄ electrolyte mixture, unlike in the pure ZnSO₄ electrolyte. This directly suggests that the Mn²⁺ additive is indeed beneficial for suppressing the formation of zinc dendrites.

Figure 3: Zinc stripping/plating behaviors in 20 mM ZnSO₄ + 5 mM MnSO₄ electrolyte at different times: (a) 0 s (initial state), (b) 60 s (c) 69 s, (d) 119 s, (e) 124 s, (f) 177 s, (g) 199 s, (h) 238 s and (i) 259 s. (j) Cyclic voltammogram curve of Zn plating and striping at the interface of Pt working electrode at a scan rate of 20 mV/s, the red dots are assigned to Figure a-i, (k) XRD pattern after zinc plating/stripping at Pt (CaCO₃ is from the XRD bonding adhesives), and (l) E-pH diagram of Mn.

Video 2: Video of zinc plating/striping at the interface of Pt working electrode in the 20 mM ZnSO₄ + 5 mM MnSO₄ electrolyte.

3) Zinc plating/stripping process in a Zn(CF₃SO₃)₂ electrolyte

Finally, the researchers set out to explore the zinc plating/stripping process in a 20 mM Zn(CF₃SO₃)₂ electrolyte. The in situ TEM images and corresponding movie detailing the resulting zinc plating/stripping process in this electrolyte is shown in Figure 4 and Video 3, respectively. The zinc plating process is depicted in Figure 4a–d, where particle-like zinc uniformly deposits on the surface of the Pt substrate, and the thickness of the deposited zinc layer increases. Here, no zinc dendrites form during the plating process. At 175s (see Figure 4e), the zinc stripping process starts, and the deposited zinc particles on the Pt substrate gradually dissolve into electrolyte. Finally, at 240s (see Figure 4f), all zinc particles disappear, demonstrating the high reversibility of zinc deposition/dissolution in the Zn(CF₃SO₃)₂ electrolyte. Importantly, the deposition of zinc on the Pt substrate in the Zn(CF₃SO₃)₂ electrolyte is more uniform and homogeneous than that in the ZnSO₄ electrolyte and ZnSO₄/MnSO₄ electrolyte mixture.

Figure 4: Zinc stripping/plating behaviors in 20 mM Zn(CF₃SO₃)₂ electrolyte at different times: (a) initial, 1.0 V (b) 124 s, -1.48 V, (c) 130 s, -1.40 V, (d) 138 s, -1.24 V, (e) 175 s, -0.40 V, (f) 240 s, 0.80 V, (g) Cyclic voltammogram curve at the scan rate of 20mV/s about Zn plating and striping at the interface of Pt working electrode in 20 mM Zn(CF₃SO₃)₂ electrolyte, the red dots are assigned to Figure a-f (h) XRD pattern after zinc plating/stripping at Pt (CaCO3 is from the XRD bonding adhesives). (i) SEM image after Zn plating on Pt.

Video 3: Video of zinc plating/striping at the interface of Pt working electrode in the 20 mM Zn(CF₃SO₃)₂ electrolyte.